For nearly five decades, Togo experienced an internal conflict that was characterised by clashes between political factions, state security forces and various other organisations. From 1958 to 2005, there were continuous attacks by these armed groups on civilians, communities, chiefs and other leaders (CVJR, 2012, p. 227), beginning with the rule of Sylvanus Olympico and...
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) experienced political instability, armed conflict and humanitarian crises from its independence from Belgian colonial rule in 1960 to its political transition in 2006. Political power struggles and coups d’état resulted in periods of conflict escalation known as the Congo Wars, occurring in 1996 and again in 1998 (Lwanzo...
The conflict in Côte d’Ivoire lasted from 2002 to 2011. During this period, the country essentially became divided in two: a largely Muslim north that supported one presidential candidate, Alassane Ouattara, and a largely Christian south in support of another, Laurent Gbagbo (Gumede, 2020). After over a decade of violence, with significant loss of life...
Interethnic conflicts were ongoing in Burundi from its independence from Belgium in 1962 until the signing of various peace agreements in 2008. This constant conflict was punctuated by sporadic but interconnected civil wars in 1965, 1972, 1988 and 1991, in addition to multiple coups (Ngaruko & Nkurunziza, 2005). The largest civil war, which lasted from...